Medicine
The
science of medicine was developed and implemented by great doctors in the major
cities of the empire, while many studies were written concerning the means that
are suitable for the treatment of patients and the pharmacology, both during
Late Antiquity and during the middle and late Byzantium.
The
works of the great Greek physicians, Hippocrates and Galen formed the
foundation of Byzantine medicine, which was further developed and enriched.
The contribution of Byzantium, not only in
the theory of medicine but also in the fields of botany, pharmacology, as well
as surgery, is of great importance. Indicative is the fact that approximately
700 substances of plants, animals or minerals, of which medicines can be
prepared and more than 200 kinds of surgical instruments have been recorded.
Indeed, the mention of a separation surgery of Siamese twins from Armenia occurring in Constantinople
in the 10th century, although with no happy ending as the twins did not
survive, testifies the high level of surgery of that time.
Hospitals, as we know from references in texts, were
charitable institutions operating under the supervision of the Church. In the
early centuries they were called καταγώγια
or hostels, and it seems that they have functioned as
hotels, where the sick travelers could take a makeshift treatment. From the 6th
century onwards they were used exclusively as spaces for hospitalization. Major
hospitals of Constantinople during the 10th century were the hospital of St Sampson
and of Euvoulos, which had doctors, nurses and assistant staff. However, the most
important hospital of the capital was the one founded by Emperor John II
Comnenus in 1136 in the monastery of Pantokrator. In particular, it was an
institution that contained a nursing home and leper hospital and a hostel
(hospital) with outpatient clinics and fifty beds distributed in five wards:
surgical, ophthalmological, gastroenterological, gynecological and pathological.
The personnel consisted of doctors, trainees and helpers, a female doctor for
women, midwives and nurses, while there were also pharmacists, cooks, bakers,
cleaners and washers, servants and doormen. There were also toilets, bathroom,
pharmacy, an area for the physicians, laboratories and auxiliary spaces for the
staff. Of the aforementioned institutions, perhaps the only one to survive till
the end of the 13th century, if not later, was the hospital of St Sampson.
The high level of the medicine
in Byzantium is
proved through the complex techniques in the preparation of drugs, the surgical
tools, the specialties developed (ophthalmology, gynecology and obstetrics,
dermatology, dentistry, cardiology, orthopedics) as well as by the laboratorial
controls. The recent research indicates that mainly the rich went to hospitals
or private doctors, while the poorer, generally resorted to temples of saints that
were famous for their healing powers, where they stayed expecting a miracle to
happen. Also, very common was the use of magical amulets for the protection or
treatment of illnesses and the use of astrology and horoscopes for diagnosing
diseases or health related predictions.
The works
In Late Antiquity, important names of medicine were:
(a) Oribasius, who wrote, by order of Justinian, the Medical Synagogues, a summary of the works of Galen, as well as Efporista, where a list of easy to
prepare drugs is given, (b) Aetius of Amida, who lived during the reign of
Justinian and studied in Alexandria and in Constantinople; he wrote sixteen
medical scientific studies organized into four books (Tetrabibli), of which the one that deals with the anatomy and
physiology of the eye is considered the most important one before the
Renaissance period; in the other books he refers to drugs and to the effective
use of herbs, describes the parasite of intestines and he is interested in the urological
problems and arthritis; however, he departs from the scientific knowledge and
in some cases he recommends the use of amulets that will keep away the "evil
eye", (c) Alexander of Tralles (brother
of Anthemios, architect of Agia Sophia) who particularly studied the
properties of herbs and extended the work of Dioscorides (significant
physician, pharmacologist and botanist of the first century AD), (d) Paul of Aegina, who recorded his knowledge in
gynecology, toxicology and therapeutics in his work Medical Compendium in seven books, which became also known to the
Arabs, (e) Theophilus, a doctor of the 7th century, who wrote the book Constitution of urine, where he describes
ways of diagnosing diseases based on a detailed analysis of the characteristics
of urine.
In the middle and late
Byzantium the writings concerning the field of medicine include the following:
(a) Anatomy of Gender by the monk Meletius, which refers to the human
anatomy and physiology, (b) Medical Compendium of doctor Leo containing issues
related to the theory of medicine, remedies and surgery, (c) Compendium of
treating diseases by Theophanes Chrysobalantes, (d) the Medical Compendium
of Simeon Seth, (e) Dynameron by Nikolaos Myrepsos, who gathered 2,656
prescriptions with eyedrops, grouts, ointments, antidepressant medications, powders,
etc., which formed until the 15th century the official pharmaceutical code of
West, (f) the Medical method of Joannes Aktouarius etc.
We
also
learn
about
the
diseases
form
references
in
the
writings of non-specialists, such as secular and
ecclesiastical writers. The medical knowledge of the Byzantines was, unsurprisingly,
transferred to other people, for example the Arabs, with whom they came in
contact since the 7th century, and the Armenians after the 10th century.
Glossary (0)
Information Texts (1)
The city:
Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine
Empire, was built on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, on the
triangular peninsula formed by the Golden Horn,
the Bosporus and the Sea
of Marmara. This was an excellent location that controlled trade
routes linking the Aegean to the Black Sea. Emperor Constantine founded Constantinople
in 330 AD as a city to rival Rome
in splendour, wealth and power. The city grew fast, leading to problems of
space and facilities, so Theodosius I extended it to the west by building new
strong walls that protected Constantinople
until the end of the Byzantine Empire.
The
city was laid out after Rome.
A main road, the Mese Odos, linked the palace to the Golden
Gate. On this road was the Forum, a circular plaza with a statue
of Constantine
mounted on a column, surrounded by public buildings. Theodosius I and Arcadius later
built more forums decorated with their own statues.
Following
the Nika riots in the 6th century, Justinian adorned Constantinople
with magnificent edifices, palaces, baths and public buildings. This time also
saw the construction of Agia Sophia (the Holy Wisdom), the church which served
as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate throughout the Byzantine period.
During
the 7th and 8th centuries Constantinople faced
major problems that threw it into disarray: attacks by the Avars (a siege in
674) and Arabs (attacks in 674 and 717-718); natural disasters (a powerful,
destructive earthquake in 740); and epidemics (plague in 747). Limited building
activity resumed in the 8th and 9th century, mainly concentrated on
strengthening the city's fortifications.
With
the recovery of the Byzantine Empire from the
9th to the 11th century, Constantinople became
the most populated city in Christendom; the majority of inhabitants were
Greek-speaking, but many other ethnic groups lived alongside them, such as
Jews, Armenians, Russians, Italians merchants, Arabs and mercenaries from Western Europe and Scandinavia. Many public, private and church-owned buildings were erected at the time, with
an emphasis on establishing charitable institutions such as hospitals, nursing
homes, orphanages and schools. Higher education flourished, thanks to the care
of the state and the emergence of important scholars. This renaissance lasted
until the mid-11th century, when economic problems due to poor management set
in, compounded by the adverse outcome of imperial operations beyond the borders.
The
Crusaders left Constantinople entirely
unscathed when first passing through, but in the Fourth Crusade of 1204 the
Franks conquered and ransacked the city, slaughtering those inhabitants they
did not take prisoner or drive out. In 1261 the city was retaken by Michael
VIII Palaeologus, who rebuilt most of the monuments and the walls but proved
unable to restore the city to its former splendour and glory. Enfeebled as it
was, the empire was incapable of checking the advance of the Ottomans, and in
1453 Constantinople finally fell into their
hands.
The fall signalled the end of the empire. Nevertheless, the Byzantine intellectual
tradition remained significant, as many scholars settled in the Venetian dominions
of Crete and the Peloponnese,
as well as in European countries, conveying Greek learning to the West.
Bibliography (5)
1. Μουτζάλη, Α., Ιατροί, ευαγή ιδρύματα και περίθαλψη ασθενών στο Βυζάντιο, 2001
2. Κωνσταντέλος, Δ., Βυζαντινή φιλανθρωπία και κοινωνική πρόνοια, Athens, 1986
3. Χαριζάνης, Γ., Παροχή νοσοκομειακής περίθαλψης από τις βυζαντινές μονές κατά τον 10ο – 12ο αιώνα, 2004-2005
4. Η ιατρική στο Βυζάντιο, 2007
5. Miller, T., The Birth of the Hospital in the Byzantine Empire, London, 1985
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