Army
Throughout
its long history the Byzantine Empire often
faced the hostility of peoples that wanted to occupy its territory. Although
all emperors and senior officials preferred to settle problems with their
neighbours by diplomacy, conflict was at times unavoidable. Having a well
organized army and navy was considered very important.
The
army
Army
organization
was based
on
two
main
bodies
created
by
Diocletian: the
limitanei and the comitatesii. The limitanei were farmers settled at the frontier who
were given free land to farm in return for providing military service whenever it was needed. The comitatesii were the regular army under the emperor’s
command, which was sent wherever necessary. Other army units called the bucelarii and the foederati were made up of allied foreigners who served as
mercenaries (they were paid for their services).
Emperor
Heraclius changed the organization and administration of the army, introducing
reforms that were completed by his successors.
Newly
created military units called themata
were permanently stationed in the provinces to strengthen defence. The
provinces were then named after the unit stationed in thema, e.g. the
area
where
the
unit
from
Armenia
was
stationed
was
called
the Armeniac thema, the area with Thracians was named the Thracesian thema and
so on.
Depending on size, each thema was
made up of two to four subdivisions named tourmai,
led by a tourmarches (tourma commander).
The tourma was divided into drouggoi,
each commanded by a drungarius, and droungoi were further divided into banda. Each banda had 300-400 men and was
commanded by a komes (count). At the
head of each thema was the strategos (general),
who was usually appointed for a period of three to four years. The troops in
each thema were made up of professional soldiers stationed at the general’s headquarters
and at strategically important city-castles. There were also farmer soldiers, settled
on lands granted by the state in return for providing military services in
wartime.
In regions close to the borders there were military corps named kleisoura (a Greek word also meaning a narrow
pass between mountains), commanded by a kleisourarchis.
Closely related to them were the Akritai,
military units of border guards.
From the 9th century onwards the main imperial forces were the
battalions, in other words military units in Constantinople
and other major imperial cities. The most important of these were: a) the Scholae, a body of both cavalrymen and
foot soldiers; b) the Excubitores (“Sentinels”),
usually sent on confidential missions; c) the Number or Vigla Corps, whose main task was to guard the palace; and d) the Hikanatoi (“Able ones”), which was the newest
guard corps. Domestikoi and droungarioi were the commanders of these
bodies. The emperor’s personal guard was made up of foreign guards called the Hetairia (“Companions”). The tasks
assigned to the various military corps were very well defined and command was based
on order and discipline, with penalties for offenses such as insubordination
(disobeying orders), desertion, giving up arms etc.
Especially when on campaign, the army was accompanied by a large number
of auxiliary personnel providing support services: the so-called touldon, made up of farriers,
blacksmiths, cooks, nurses, and animals carrying equipment (tools, tents, food,
weapons, etc.). Other members of the support staff were cantatores (orators and preachers) to animate the soldiers; mandatores (messengers) who saw to
communication between corps; artists to entertain the warriors; and chaplains
(army priests) who worked in the camps and on the battlefield. Soldiers were
also allowed to take slaves or servants with them to serve various practical
needs.
Military service lasted several years. In order to avoid it some people
became monks or even had limbs amputated, while the rich bought their way out of
military service with money that the state used to pay mercenaries. All the
same, the army did offer a solution to those without money and property. Apart
from their regular salary, the roga,
which depended on rank and corps, soldiers received part of the spoils, tax
exemptions and rations (bread, wine, olive oil and meat). The military also received
extra benefits from the emperor when he was enthroned or got married, or when special
events were celebrated. In Logos
Nouthetetikos (a speech giving advice to an emperor), a writer called
Kekaumenos recommends that soldiers’ pay should never be reduced, otherwise
they may desert (leave their unit).
After
the defeat at Manzikert (1071) the army based on themata gradually broke up and
was replaced by the institution of pronoia
(welfare). Under this, nobles and officials were given farms and tax money in
exchange for the obligation to provide military service in wartime. This
measure was unsuccessful – the army shrank to the point where it relied mainly on mercenaries who only fought for money and, not because they wanted to save
their country.
The navy
The
spread of the Arabs in the 7th century threatened Byzantine control over the
sea and led to the reorganization of the ploimon
(navy), headed by the Strategos karabisianon
(General of the ships). The navy was organized as an integral part of the thema
administration system. This created fleets organized by province - the thematika ploima - under the command of generals
or droungarioi. The imperial ploimon was an independent fleet used
for defending the capital city; it was led by the drungarion tou ploimon, or Admiral General. The main warship during
the Byzantine period was the dromon
(runner), which could carry up to 300 men, warriors and rowers. Other types of
warships were the dromonion and chelandion.
Every time the fleet was about to leave, commanders would inspect their
ships and men, while priests chanted a particular psalm to ensure their success
and safety. The most common way of giving naval battle was called pelagolimin: the war fleet was arranged in
a semicircle, with the admiral’s dromon placed
in the middle so that the orders he gave were heard by all.
The strongest dromons were positioned at both ends of
the formation. Another formation was the side-on attack, with the bows facing
the enemy. In contrast to ancient times, naval tactics no longer relied on ramming,
but on coming up alongside enemy ships and tying up to them. When this had been
done, soldiers would rush on board and give battle man-to-man. The Byzantine Empire’s naval power decreased over time. By
the end of the 13th century the navy had been broken up, since the state could
no longer afford to keep it up. This allowed the Venetians and the Genoese to
control the Mediterranean, even though in the
past they had sometimes fought on the same side as the Byzantine fleet.
Glossary (2)
turmarch:
military commander of the turma, a unit in the Byzantine army. Turmas were first established during the 7th century and were related to the development of the Themata administrative system. Originally the strength of a turma was 3000 men, but in later periods it became an administrative unit, a subdivision of the Thema.
drungarios:
military rank in the Byzantine army and fleet, equivalent to the chiliarch (commander of a thousand). From the 12th century onwards drungarioi also had judicial duties, judging civil cases.
Information Texts (2)
Heraclius:
Byzantine Emperor from 610 to 641, son of the exarch
of Carthage. He
was proclaimed emperor in 610, when he invaded Constantinople
with a big army from Carthage
and ascended the throne with the support of the Greens and Patriarch Sergius I.
When Heraclius came to power the empire was in a very precarious situation, being
threatened by the Slavs and the Avars in the northern Balkans, and the Persians
in the east. The Persians even seized Jerusalem
in 614 and Egypt
in 619. At the same time, he also faced domestic enemies who coveted the
throne. In general, Heraclius constantly conducted defensive and offensive wars,
in which he managed to trounce the Persians and Avars. However, Islam soon
replaced the Persian danger. Muslims occupied territories in Palestine which the emperor was unable to
recover. Heraclius was a great warrior and military man, who reorganized the
army and recaptured many of the lost territories of the empire. However, he
does not seem to have been an efficient governor and was unable to resolve the
religious controversies that arose during his reign.
Themata:
Military units and divisions of territory. The themata
were instituted in the 7th century as a countermeasure against enemy
invasions. By the end of the same century most of the empire was subdivided in
this way. Themata were headed by a general who exercised military, political
and judicial power. Many such generals rapidly acquired considerable influence
and centralized power, so by the 8th-9th century the themata
were subdivided into smaller units to curb their influence. In the 11th
century the generals were replaced by civilian rulers, and by the late 12th
century the themata had ceased to exist.
Bibliography (8)
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