The island

Glossary (5)

Paleo-Christian (early Christian) era: in Byzantine history, the period that typically starts in 330 AD, when Constantine the Great transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to his newly-founded city of Constantinople, and ends with the death of Justinian in 565.
basilica: type of large church, divided internally into three or more naves. The central nave was usually covered by a raised roof with windows that illuminated the space.
wall paintings or murals: Painted scenes on a wall or ceiling surface.
nonfigurative decoration: decoration without depictions or representations of persons, usually consisting of vegetal or geometric patterns. Such decorations are commonly found on early Christian floors, mosaics and tomb frescoes. Also found on various early Byzantine monuments; enjoyed a revival in momumental art during the iconoclast controversy.
chrysobull: official public document or decree issued by the emperors of Byzantium, with an authenticating gold stamp on the silk band that accompanied it.

Information Texts (7)

The city: In the 1st and 2nd century Athens was a wealthy city and one of the empire’s major intellectual centres, which frequently attracted the attention and patronage of emperors and wealthy civilians. Hadrian increased the perimeter of the walls and almost doubled the city’s area. Herod Atticus adorned it with groups of monuments that have survived in part to this day. That being said, serious damage was done when the one-time glorious city was taken by the Heruli in 267, and raided by the Goths under Alaric in 396. The Acropolis, the Roman agora and Hadrian’s Library were surrounded by a wall, which became Athens’ main fortification. Plato’s Academy was revitalized from the early 4th to the early 6th century by the neo-platonic philosophers, who taught rhetoric and philosophy to promising Christian and pagan youths from all over the empire; three of its students were Basil the Great, Gregory of Nazianzus and Emperor Julian. Empress Pulcheria was so impressed by the education received by Athinaïs, daughter of the sophist Leontius, that in 421 she had her forcibly christened Eudocia and wed her to her brother, Emperor Theodosius II. The so-called Palace of Giants, founded in the ancient agora in this period, may have belonged to Eudocia and her family. Christianity began to make its presence felt in the city in the early 5th century. A tetraconch which may from the outset have been a Christian church was erected inside Hadrian’s Library, in addition to a three-nave basilica on the island in the middle of the Ilissos River, which may have been dedicated to the memory of Leonides, bishop of the city.Shortly before the middle of the same century, the Parthenon was converted into the city’s cathedral church and dedicated to the Virgin Mary. The inhabitants who remained faithful to the idols seem to have lived in fear. Although the Panathenaic procession continued to be celebrated up until the 5th century, offering a sense of respite, it was stripped of pagan rituals. In 529 the Academy and the remaining schools were closed by decree of Justinian, though whether this was ever enforced remains a subject of debate. This sealed the economic decline of a city that had once and for all lost its role as a centre of learning. The opulent residences unearthed in the vicinity of the Areios Pagos were abandoned by their occupants, either because they were unable to maintain them in times of recession or because the Slavs appeared in the late 6th century. In the following centuries written sources mentioning Athens are sporadic. Emperor Constans II, his army and court wintered in Athens in 662-663 while preparing a campaign against Sicily. Relations between the local nobility and the palace of Constantinople probably began at this time. Two Athenian women became empresses: Irene, who was on the throne from 780 to 802; and her niece Theophano, who ruled for a few months in 811. In the early 9th century the city was promoted from a diocese to an archdiocese, in accordance with the palace’s wishes rather than on account of any increase in the population. Private houses were located in neighbourhoods to the north, west and south-west of the Acropolis, within and beyond the Late Roman wall. They were generally of makeshift construction, with rooms arranged around a courtyard, next to workshops and small factories. Excavations have mainly brought to light house basements full of storage jars. From the late 10th century, small churches were built in the area north of the Acropolis. These had clearly defined outlines and were strongly built of cloisonné masonry, with domes surrounded by small marble columns. Such churches include Agioi Theodoroi in Klafthmonos Square (1049); the oldest surviving church is most probably the catholicon in Asomatoi Monastery (dedicated to the Incorporeal Saints), better known as Petraki Monastery, from the late 10th century. Agios Eleftherios (the Small Metropolis or cathedral) can be placed in the late 12th century. It is not known whether these churches were privately owned or served as the catholica of small monasteries. Basil II the Bulgar Slayer arrived in 1018 to pray in the Church of the Virgin Mary at Athens, as the Parthenon was then called. His visit ushered in a period of growth for the city cathedral as a pilgrim shrine. However, letters written by the scholar Metropolitan Nicetas Choniates in the late 12th century express sadness at the poverty and illiteracy of the people, the destruction of houses, the poor state of the walls, the greed of government officials and pirate raids. In 1204 Choniates held out against Leo Sgouros by gathering the population in the Acropolis. Shortly afterwards he was forced to surrender the city to Boniface of Montferrat, who appointed Guy de la Roche as its first Great Lord; in 1259 the city formed part of the Duchy of Athens, which stretched from Lokris to the Corinthian Gulf and from Evia to Doris. The de la Roche Burgundians erected the Rizokastro, a new wall around the Acropolis incorporating a large part of the Late Roman one. This period­­­­ of adjustment under the rule of the de la Roches, including the appointment of a Latin bishop in the cathedral in 1204, favoured the founding or renovation of new churches in outlying areas only; in the late 13th century additions were made to the wall paintings in the so-called Omorphe Ecclesia (“Beautiful Church) in Galatsi. Daphni Monastery was ceded to Cistercian monks and its catholicon became the burial place of the Dukes of Athens. From 1311 to 1388 the city passed into the hands of the Catalan Company, which was notorious for the cruelty of its administration, while in 1385 the Catalans gave it to Nerio Acciaioli, scion of the renowned Florentine family that held the sovereignty of Athens until 1456, apart from a brief period from 1394 to 1403 when it was under the control of the Venetians. Under the Acciaioli the capital of the duchy was transferred from Thebes to Athens, the palace at the Propylaea and the Parthenon were renovated, roads were built and a tall tower was erected at the entrance to the Acropolis fortifications. In 1456 the last Florentine duke handed Athens over to the Turks. Two years later this led Mehmed the Conqueror to grant the Athenians privileges, including the right to retain all churches except for the Parthenon, which was converted into a mosque.
The island: The presence of the Knights Hospitaller on Rhodes for over two centuries determined its course through history and shaped its character to such an extent that in Greek popular thinking it has become known as the Island of the Knights. However, Rhodes’ rich past, splendid art, monuments and robust culture go back much further than the flourishing medieval age of chivalry. There is definitive evidence of settlement from prehistoric times.The island was colonised by the Mycenaeans and subsequently by the Dorians from the Argolis, who spread into the south-west Aegean in the late 10th century. It was this that led to the creation of the Dorian Hexapolis, a major confederation of Dorian cities in the area, involving the three Rhodian cities of Ialyssos, Lindos, and Kamiros, and the cities of Cnidos, Bodrum and Kos, with the temple of Triopian Apollo at Cnidos as their common religious centre. The Archaic era was a period of progress and prosperity for Rhodes. The growth of shipping extended trade relations, resulting in a thriving economy. Archaeological finds from Kamiros attest to contacts with Asia Minor, Egypt and mainland Greece, while Rhodian vessels found in numerous places around the Mediterranean Basin confirm the range of commercial destinations. This picture of prosperity is backed up by the minting of coins, and the establishment of colonies, such as that set up by the people of Lindos at Gela in Sicily in the first half of the 7th century BC. A turning point in the island’s history came in 408-407 BC, when Kamiros, Ialyssos and Lindos founded the city of Rhodes as a new common political and residential centre. Famed for its Hippodamian urban plan, the island’s namesake flourished in Hellenistic times thanks to its wealth, power and culture, reigning supreme among the cities of Rhodes. With its five ports, the island played a key role as a trading post throughout antiquity. Its power and culture were symbolized by one of the seven wonders of the ancient world: the colossal statue of the god Helios, sculpted by Chares, which dominated the sea entrance to the city. Rhodes lost its prestige and experienced a downturn in late antiquity, traumatized by events such as plundering by Cassius in 42 BC, a powerful earthquake in 155 AD and invasion by the Goths in 269. In 297 it was incorporated into the Province of the Islands (Provincia Insularum); after the capital of the Roman Empire was moved to Constantinople, the island appears to have regained some of its earlier strength due to its key position on the sea route linking the capital to the eastern and southern provinces. However, earthquakes in 344 and 515 undermined smooth recovery.Christianity spread early to Rhodes, as it did throughout the Aegean, and the island’s bishop participated in the First Ecumenical Council at Nicaea in 325. The general prosperity of the early Christian period on the islands is attested on Rhodes by the building of large houses and basilicas. The large three nave basilica unearthed to the east of the ancient citadel in Rhodes town is one of the characteristic monuments of this era: measuring more than 60 metres in length, it has a three-aisled transept and is sumptuously decorated with frescoes and wall and floor mosaics. Archaeological excavations have brought to light two more basilicas in the medieval city, and confirmed the existence of a significant Early Byzantine castle with a moat, parts of a rampart and a walled citadel, on the site of the later Palace of the Grand Magister. All the archaeological evidence suggests that the Early Christian settlement was substantial, extending beyond the walled area. From the 7th century onwards Rhodes shared the fate of the Aegean islands, entering a period of stagnation, fear and decline due to the appearance of the Arab peril. The Arabs raided and looted the islands, including Rhodes, but failed to interrupt trade. Late 7th and 8th century lead seals used by customs staff (kommerkarioi) on Rhodes indicate the island’s important role in Eastern Mediterranean commerce. In the mid-Byzantine period Rhodes came into contact with the West. In 1082 Alexius I Comnenus granted the Venetians permission to establish a staging post there, thus consolidating the city's link with Western European culture and rendering it a prominent trading hub once more. The robust economy is reflected in intensive coin circulation during the 11th and 12th centuries, as well as in artistic activity. The 11th century church of Our Lady of the Castle served as the Orthodox Christian cathedral in Byzantine times, but was converted into a Catholic cathedral after the Knights Hospitaller invaded Rhodes. The church of Agios Fanourios dates to the same period, as do the frescoes in the catholicon of the Archangel Michael in Tharri. After Constantinople fell to the Franks in 1204, Rhodes was declared independent by its commander, Leo Gavalas. The flow of westerners to the island increased, paving the way for the arrival of the Knights Hospitaller. Having lost their foothold in Palestinian territory after the fall of Jerusalem and the conquest of Acre in 1291, the Knights of the Order of St. John occupied Rhodes in 1309. This heralded an era of brilliance for the island and led to the development of Rhodes town’s distinctive medieval character, which it retains to the present day. It was in this period that Rhodes emerged as one of the leading seaports in Europe. The population grew and became increasingly multicultural, thanks to Greek, Frank and Jewish merchants, travellers and soldiers. Economic vigour went hand in hand with the growth of both shipping and small industry. The impact of all these changes was reflected in society in the emergence of a stratified class structure, with the wealthy nobles and the poor populace at either end. The arts flourished over the centuries the knights were on the island. New urban planning and extensive building activity drastically altered the urban landscape. The Byzantine tripartite division of the city was maintained as follows: (a) the Command House or Palace of the Grand Magister was built on the highest north-western point of the city; (b) the Castle or Collachium, in the northern part of city, where the other important public and private buildings were. These included the Inns of Tongues ​​in the Street of the Knights, the church of Our Lady of the Castle, St John's, the hospital, the archdiocese, the knights’ quarter, the armoury and the naval station. (c) The Chora (Burgus), located in the southern part of the city. The paved Street of the Knights, measuring 200m in length and 6m wide, one of the best preserved medieval streets, led from the Palace of the Grand Magister to the harbour. The centre of commercial activity was the Magna et Communis Platea or Macellus Rhodi in the market; it was a long street 50m in width that crossed the city from west to east. The capture of Rhodes by the Ottomans in 1522 brought the island’s golden era to an end. The city changed appearance once again, as Greek neighbourhoods were created outside the walls, existing public buildings were modified and several new ones erected, most of which were mosques and baths. In 1912 Rhodes and the entire Dodecanese came under Italian rule. The Italians implemented an extensive program to restore monuments from the time of the Knights, in some cases demolishing the Ottoman additions. They also erected utility buildings and modernized the city. The island was incorporated into the Greek state in 1948. Well preserved monuments created by many cultures over time stand side by side in the medieval city of Rhodes, which was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1988 as an outstanding architectural ensemble.
The church of Panagia Drosiani: The Church of Panagia Drosiani, all that survives of the monastery named after it, is located in inland Naxos, on the road to the village of Chalki in Tragaia. Sources from the 16th and 17th century refer to the Monastery of Our Lady, but the church is much older, probably dating to the 6th century. The church is dedicated to the Nativity of the Virgin, and was built in several phases. The original building was a small, single-nave domed tri-conch built of rough stones in a somewhat clumsy, inexperienced manner. The dome is almost conical and supported by pointed arches; rather than being circular, the base resembles a quadrilateral with rounded corners. The easternmost of the three conches is the sanctuary, with a large biforate arched window that was partly walled up when the church was decorated for the first time in the 7th century. Traces of an episcopal throne are visible in the conch. Α vaulted rectangular structure was added to the west side of the original building in a later phase, with bell towers over the gates of the west and south side. In the final building phase three chapels were added to the north wall of the extension to the original building. They are contiguous, single-roomed domed structures, with three conches in the outermost chapels. The eastern one appears to have been used as an ossuary and bears remnants of wall paintings. The church interior was adorned with successive layers of frescoes dated to the 12th, 13th and 14th century. On removal, the original frescoes dated to the 7th century were revealed in the dome, the apse of the central conch and the northern conch of the original church. These are probably the most complete iconographic programme still surviving from the pre-iconoclast era; dedicatory inscriptions indicate that they were sponsored by many donors, including the Bishop of Sisini. In the dome, the unique dual representation of Christ as a young boy and mature man with a beard is probably linked to the Monophysite controversy, as an attempt to interpret the doctrine of the dual nature of Christ. The Ascension is depicted in the sanctuary conch, alongside Panagia Nikopoios (Our Lady Victorious) with Agioi Anargyroi (the Unmercenary Saints) painted in medals in the north conch, above one of the oldest representations of the Supplication. The Virgin Mary is referred to as "Saint Maria"; the presence of Solomon and an imperially robed form identified as the personification of the Church indicates that the fresco is linked to the meaning of the Wisdom of God. Subsequent painting layers have now been removed from the monument. Those covering the original Ascension of Christ in the sanctuary apse repeat the Supplication theme, and one of them is signed by someone named George. In around 1300 the half-cylinder of the apse was re-decorated with a representation of the Virgin Mary, while individual representations of saints from the 13th and 14th centuries covered surfaces in the sanctuary and ​​northern conch.
The church of Panagia Protothroni: Τhe Episcopal Church of Panagia Protothroni is located in the village of Halki in Tragaia, in the interior of Naxos. The church is dedicated to the Annunciation, and was probably an early Christian basilica, of which only the synthronon and the episcopal throne in the semi-circular sanctuary conch survive. In mid-Byzantine times the building was converted into a transitional cross-in-square church. A domed narthex was later added, flanked by the chapel of Agios Akindynos to the north and a vaulted rectangular room to the south. According to an architrave inscription probably from the templon, the church was renovated in 1052. The inscription also mentions the names of Bishop Leo, “Nikitas, Protospatharios and Turmarch of Naxia" and Count Stephen Kamilaris. Other 16th and 17th century inscriptions refer to subsequent repairs. The church interior is decorated in five successive layers dating to the early Christian period; the 9th century (non-figurative decoration); and the 10th, 11th, and 13th centuries. Some of these were detached and then repositioned once the earliest layer had been removed, so frescoes from different periods are now visible. The first layer of frescoes dates to the 7th century - apostles adorn the bottom of the conch, while the side of the window has a depiction of St. Isidore. The second layer painted over the Apostles in the conch consisted of non-figurative decoration, with crosses in the arcades, and dates to the Iconoclast period in the 9th century. The two superimposed layers uncovered in the dome have been dated to 1052 and 1056 respectively, as they have been linked to the architrave inscription and a further inscription in the north chapel, commemorating the Assumption of the Servant of God Anna in 1056. All the same, it is also believed that the first layer detached from the dome, along with other wall paintings in the south antenna, date to a slightly earlier period, in the 10th and 11th century. The depictions of Saints George, Nicholas, Dimitrios and Theodore incorporated in the eastern section of the second layer date to 1052. According to another view, the depiction of the Annunciation on the south wall of the sanctuary is later, dating to the 11th or 12th-13th century. In the late 13th century the lower part of the sanctuary conch was re-decorated with co-officiating bishops, only one of whom has survived in detached form. The Supplication depicted in the apse was painted later.
Iconoclast Controversy : movement that condemned the worship of images depicting God or the saints. Initiated in 726 or 730 by Leo III, temporarily halted in 787 by Empress Irene, resumed again in 815 by Leo V and finally ended in 843 by Empress Theodora. During the two periods of Iconoclasm, the iconographic programmes in churches were replaced by geometric shapes, floral motifs, the sign of the cross, etc. Iconodules, those remaining true to the worship of icons, suffered persecution.
The city: Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine Empire, was built on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, on the triangular peninsula formed by the Golden Horn, the Bosporus and the Sea of Marmara. This was an excellent location that controlled trade routes linking the Aegean to the Black Sea. Emperor Constantine founded Constantinople in 330 AD as a city to rival Rome in splendour, wealth and power. The city grew fast, leading to problems of space and facilities, so Theodosius I extended it to the west by building new strong walls that protected Constantinople until the end of the Byzantine Empire. The city was laid out after Rome. A main road, the Mese Odos, linked the palace to the Golden Gate. On this road was the Forum, a circular plaza with a statue of Constantine mounted on a column, surrounded by public buildings. Theodosius I and Arcadius later built more forums decorated with their own statues. Following the Nika riots in the 6th century, Justinian adorned Constantinople with magnificent edifices, palaces, baths and public buildings. This time also saw the construction of Agia Sophia (the Holy Wisdom), the church which served as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate throughout the Byzantine period. During the 7th and 8th centuries Constantinople faced major problems that threw it into disarray: attacks by the Avars (a siege in 674) and Arabs (attacks in 674 and 717-718); natural disasters (a powerful, destructive earthquake in 740); and epidemics (plague in 747). Limited building activity resumed in the 8th and 9th century, mainly concentrated on strengthening the city's fortifications. With the recovery of the Byzantine Empire from the 9th to the 11th century, Constantinople became the most populated city in Christendom; the majority of inhabitants were Greek-speaking, but many other ethnic groups lived alongside them, such as Jews, Armenians, Russians, Italians merchants, Arabs and mercenaries from Western Europe and Scandinavia. Many public, private and church-owned buildings were erected at the time, with an emphasis on establishing charitable institutions such as hospitals, nursing homes, orphanages and schools. Higher education flourished, thanks to the care of the state and the emergence of important scholars. This renaissance lasted until the mid-11th century, when economic problems due to poor management set in, compounded by the adverse outcome of imperial operations beyond the borders. The Crusaders left Constantinople entirely unscathed when first passing through, but in the Fourth Crusade of 1204 the Franks conquered and ransacked the city, slaughtering those inhabitants they did not take prisoner or drive out. In 1261 the city was retaken by Michael VIII Palaeologus, who rebuilt most of the monuments and the walls but proved unable to restore the city to its former splendour and glory. Enfeebled as it was, the empire was incapable of checking the advance of the Ottomans, and in 1453 Constantinople finally fell into their hands. The fall signalled the end of the empire. Nevertheless, the Byzantine intellectual tradition remained significant, as many scholars settled in the Venetian dominions of Crete and the Peloponnese, as well as in European countries, conveying Greek learning to the West.
The island: As the largest island in the Greek archipelago, with a culture all of its own, Crete has made its mark on Greek history and often determined its course. Having developed a fully fledged culture from as early as Neolithic times, Crete heralded the dawn of civilization in the wider European area. The lasting period of prosperity from 2800 to 1100 BC is associated with Minoan civilization. Irrefutable evidence of its range and splendour lies in the old and new palaces erected at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and Zakros; in the development of important sites such as Agia Triada, Gortyn, Zominthos, Myrtos, Fournou Koryfi, etc.; in the evolution of a sophisticated, rich and vibrant art; in the commercial supremacy of the Minoans on the seas; and in the spread of their products, pottery, artefacts and artistic trends throughout the Mediterranean Basin. The collapse of the palatial system and the decline of Minoan civilization were followed by Mycenaean infiltration and the transition to the Iron Age, which in no way recalled the glories of the past. In historic times Crete may not have lost its status as trading centre, but it was relegated to the margins of the Greek world, which was thenceforth associated with the major centres of Athens, Sparta and later Macedonia. The island’s principal urban centres at that time were at Knossos, Lato, Praisos, Cydonia and Gortyn. In 69 BC the Romans took the island by force. They designated Gortys as their administrative seat, which emerged as a major centre of the time. In the 1st century Crete received Christianity as preached by the Apostle Paul; the island’s churches were organized by Paul’s disciple Titus in 63 AD. The spread of Christianity between the 4th and 8th century led to the construction of a considerable number of basilicas, all typical of the Early Christian period, such as those at Sougia, Chersonisos, Panormo, Eleutherna, Sybritos, Frangokastelo and Gortys. Sources reveal that Crete then formed part of the Diocese of Moesia (Dioecesis Moesiarum or Illyricum Orientale), which was directly dependent on the Church of Rome; the Episcopal Province of Crete had about twenty bishoprics, with Gortys as its metropolitan see. During the iconoclast controversy under Constantine V, in around 754, the Church of Crete broke away from Rome and was annexed to the throne of Constantinople. In 823 civil war broke out on Crete between Thomas the Slav and Emperor Michael II. Meanwhile, a series of uprisings by Andalusian Arabs against the Caliph of Cordoba in the West Mediterranean led to their being banished from the Iberian Peninsula, thus rendering the island vulnerable to attack. Denied access to the north coast of Africa, they set their sights on Crete. Α series of assaults in 826 resulted in forty Arab battle ships entering Souda Bay. The island was pillaged for several days and then taken over; Gortys was razed to the ground, and the Arabs established a new capital on the site of ancient Heraclea, erecting a substantial fortress with deep ditches, which they named al-Chandak (later known as Chandax). From there they organised an extensive series of attacks against the Aegean islands, plunging them into destruction and desolation. Emperor Michael II’s efforts to recover Crete by 829 failed to rid the island of the Arab presence, as did an initially successful attempt by Michael III in 843. The baton then passed to Emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, in whose reign Nicephorus Phocas became known as a man of military prowess. Once Porphyrogenitus had been succeeded by Romanos II, in 960 Nicephorus launched a military campaign to liberate Crete. The following year, following several months of operations, this ended in the surrender of Chandax. The island returned to Byzantine rule as a theme, with its church and administration reorganized by Phocas. For fear of a renewed Arab threat the capital was temporarily moved to the hinterland behind Chandax, surrounded by a strong wall. In the religious sphere Phocas formed associations with spiritual fathers such as Saint Nikon Metanoeite (“Repent”) and Saint John Xenos, reorganized new episcopal sees far from the coast and moved others to new locations. In the late 10th century the cathedral of Agios Titos (Saint Titus), was built at Gortys, on the ruins of an early Christian three-nave vaulted basilica. The second period of Byzantine rule lasted until Constantinople was conquered by the Crusaders in 1204. After the capital fell, the island was briefly occupied (until 1217) by Enrico Pescatore, Genoese count of Malta, who made concerted attempts to strengthen the forts at Chandax, Rethymnon and Sitia, and erected walls around other important sites. From 1217 onwards Crete established itself as one of the most important possessions held by the Most Serene Republic of Venice. Under the new Venetian name Candia, Chandax remained the capital and administrative centre of the island, which was divided into six sectors administered by Venetian commanders. Settlement by Venetian colonists boosted the population and breathed new life into the city, which was radically remodelled: the walls and harbour were reinforced, and intense building activity began. Sea routes expanded and trade flourished. The Byzantine church administrative system was retained, though a Latin bishop was appointed alongside his Greek counterpart at the head of each episcopal see. The entire 13th century saw repeated uprisings against Venetian authority. Prominent among these was the one led by the Skordiles and Melissinos families in the first quarter of the century, since it had the support of Byzantine troops from John Vatazes’ Empire of Nicaea. A few years later, the recapture of Constantinople by Michael VIII Palaeologus (1261) sparked off a new wave of unrest on the island. This series of uprisings ended in 1363-1364, when Venetian feudal lords attempted to secede from Venice by declaring Crete the Republic of St. Titus. After the fall of the Byzantine capital to the Ottomans in 1453, many people flocked from Constantinople to Crete. Although this new population influx undoubtedly marked a major change, smooth coexistence with the local population and the Venetians served the island well, resulting in the Cretan Renaissance of the 16th and 17th centuries. Between 1645 and 1669 the island was the theatre of the Fifth Venetian-Turkish War. The Ottomans landed on Crete and occupied it in 1645, and three years latter laid siege to Chandax. Chania was taken in 1645 and Rethymnon in 1646. The monumental siege of Candia began in May 1648 and lasted for twenty-one years; the city was pounded by daily bombardment and attacks, but managed to hold out as it was supplied from the sea. The final phase began in 1666, when numerous reinforcements arrived in support of Fazil Ahmed Pasha Kiopruli (Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Paşa). The dire predicament of the besieged forced Venetian general Francesco Morosini to come to terms with the Ottomans and surrender the island to them.

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