The island
Located in the northern
part of the Dodecanese islands, Patmos is a small, barren and rocky island. Volcanic soil
and infrequent rains deprive the island of vegetation and crops, thus driving
the inhabitants to the sea; at the same time they made for an abstract and
otherworldly landscape, suitable to accommodate the apocalyptic writings of
John the Theologian.
Ancient Patmos is attested by scattered and
fragmentary field findings. The archaeological record shows no Minoan or
Mycenaean finds and only a few Geometric and Archaic remains, no more than
hinting at the pre-Christian era on the island. To this day the most important
archaeological site on the island is Kastelli, in the central part of the west
coast. Pottery remains and stone tools from the Bronze Age confirm that the
area was inhabited, though the signs of organization and walling date to the
late classic period. Kastelli appears to have been inhabited until the Roman
period. The ruins of a temple dedicated to Patmian Artemis offer solid evidence
of a cult in her name, on the site later used to build the Monastery of St.
John the Theologian. Like Leros, the island was a satellite of the mighty city
of Miletus.
The fact that Patmos served as a place of exile in late Roman times
undoubtedly determined the island’s history and development. In contrast to the
archaeological evidence on most Aegean islands, only a few finds offer a
glimpse of the early Christian era prior to the turning point marked by the
foundation of the monastery in mid-Byzantine times. Indeed, most of the finds
were preserved by being walled into the monastery and village houses. A
lengthy period of abandonment is recorded in the so-called "Dark Ages" (7th-9th
centuries), due to relentless raids and looting by Arab pirates.
Tradition has it that John, the beloved disciple of Jesus, was exiled to barren
Patmos in around 95 AD, during the persecutions of Emperor Domitian; it was
during his stay on the island that John wrote two of the religious texts
central to Christian faith, the Gospel According to John and the Apocalypse. Inextricably
linked to this tradition is the founding of the monastery by Blessed
Christodoulos Latrinus in 1088. Having petitioned Emperor Alexius I Comnenus,
he managed to secure a chrysobull granting him the island and other privileges
so as to found a monastery dedicated to the Evangelist. The monastery was
erected at the summit of the hill, over the remains of an ancient temple and an
early Christian
basilica. Over time the settlement known as Chora (the island
capital) grew up around it, merging to form a densely built and labyrinthine architectural
complex.
The island did not manage
to escape pillage and destruction by pirates; Turks, Saracens and Normans
systematically raided Patmos in the 12th
century, scarring the island. Yet life held out - the settlement expanded and grew
stronger, the monastery buildings were completed, and in the late 12th
and early 13th centuries the refectory and Chapel of the
Virgin Mary were decorated with fresco compositions. In 1309 the island was
conquered by the Knights Hospitaller. Over the next century Patmos
served as the theatre of war between the Venetians and Ottomans, but succeeded
in maintaining its privileges via the monastery. In 1522 the islands were
incorporated into the Ottoman Empire, thus
fostering a period of relative stability and peace for Patmos.
The population grew gradually over the 16th and 17th centuries, bolstered by
refugees from Constantinople and Crete. Together with greater local involvement in trade
and shipping, this resulted in the rise of a new noble class linked to an era of
development and prosperity on Patmos. A
serious blow to recovery was dealt in 1659, when a Venetian named Morosini
pillaged the island in retaliation for the monastery entering into negotiations
with the Turks. With all its disastrous consequences, this diplomatic blunder
on the monastery’s part shook faith in its integrity, robbing it thereafter of
the centralising role it played for Patmos. The
settlement began to grow and expand following the arrival of Cretan refugees from
the fall of Candia in 1669, while release from
monastery control lent impetus to the rise of a class of seafarers. The School of Patmos was founded in 1713. All of these
factors contributed to the island experiencing an unprecedented period of
economic vigour and intellectual growth.
Glossary (5)
Paleo-Christian (early Christian) era:
in Byzantine history, the period that typically starts in 330 AD, when Constantine the Great transferred the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to his newly-founded city of Constantinople, and ends with the death of Justinian in 565.
chrysobull:
official public document or decree issued by the emperors of Byzantium, with an authenticating gold stamp on the silk band that accompanied it.
basilica:
type of large church, divided internally into three or more naves. The central nave was usually covered by a raised roof with windows that illuminated the space.
chapel:
small
sized church, either
independent, belonging
to a religious foundation, or part of
a larger
church.
In Byzantium chapels were often
used for burials.
wall paintings or murals:
Painted scenes on a wall or ceiling surface.
Information Texts (4)
The monastery of Agios Ioannis Theologos:
The
Monastery of Agios Ioannis Theologos on Patmos is
a unique example of medieval monastic architecture and a place of considerable
religious interest, being one of the largest monasteries in the Aegean. Tradition has it that John, the beloved disciple
of Jesus, was exiled to barren Patmos in around 95 AD, during the persecutions
of Emperor Domitian; it was during his stay on the island that John wrote two
of the religious texts central to Christian faith, the Gospel According to John
and the Apocalypse. Inextricably linked to this tradition is the founding of
the monastery by Blessed Christodoulos Latrinus in 1088.Having petitioned
Emperor Alexius I Comnenus, he managed to secure a chrysobull granting him the
island and other privileges so as to found a monastery dedicated to the
Evangelist.The monastery was erected on the summit of the hill, over the
remains of an ancient temple and an early Christian
basilica. Over time
the settlement known as Chora (the island capital) grew up around it, merging
to form a densely built and labyrinthine architectural ensemble.The monastery complex
is surrounded by an irregularly shaped, many sided medieval wall 15 m in
height. The interior is on several levels, including cell wings, auxiliary
buildings, galleries and chapels dating to the 16th and 17th century, built
around the catholicon as their focal point. The latter is a late 11th
century composite four-column cross-in-square church, with attached chapels
dedicated to the Virgin Mary and Christodoulos. The surviving wall paintings
are fine, rarely encountered depictions of evangelical scenes probably painted
by a Cretan School artist, dating from the second decoration
phase in the early 17th century. The chapel of the Virgin Mary has an important
fresco ensemble displaying the monumental tendency of the late 12th century.
The famed monastery library and sacristy house treasures and heirlooms of inestimable
historical and artistic value, such as rare collections of Byzantine and post-Byzantine
manuscripts, imperial documents, books, icons and miniature works. The Monastery
of Agios Ioannis Theologos on Patmos (an
impressive architectural monument and repository of Byzantine culture), the
Cave of the Apocalypse and Chora (Patmos town)
were placed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1999, as a prominent Greek
Orthodox pilgrimage centre of outstanding architectural interest.
Alexius I Comnenus:
Emperor
of Byzantium
from 1081 to 1118, founder of the Comnenian dynasty. Son of John Comnenus and
Anna Dalassene, he was originally a general in the imperial army. Using this
position he led a revolt supported by the army and the aristocracy, which ended
in the capture of Constantinople and his
ascension to the imperial throne on 1 April 1081. The empire Alexius inherited was at a very
critical juncture: the aristocracy were in revolt, the Seljuks had taken over
much of Asia Minor and the capital and the Danubian
provinces were under attack. The raids continued at greater or lesser intensity
over several years. To address these difficulties, Alexius turned to the West,
and signed peace treaties with the Venetians and the Germans. With regard to domestic affairs, he attempted to reform and revitalize
the economy and trade so as to stop deflation of the Byzantine currency, and overhauled
the administration. The first Crusade took place during his reign. Alexius exercised
diplomacy in dealing with the waves of crusaders, providing them with vessels to
cross over to Asia Minor. After extensive
negotiations, the crusader leaders agreed to hand back any lands they might
capture that had previously belonged to the Byzantine
Empire. However, Alexius failed to prevent them capture Antioch and Jerusalem. He died in
1118.
The city:
Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine
Empire, was built on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, on the
triangular peninsula formed by the Golden Horn,
the Bosporus and the Sea
of Marmara. This was an excellent location that controlled trade
routes linking the Aegean to the Black Sea. Emperor Constantine founded Constantinople
in 330 AD as a city to rival Rome
in splendour, wealth and power. The city grew fast, leading to problems of
space and facilities, so Theodosius I extended it to the west by building new
strong walls that protected Constantinople
until the end of the Byzantine Empire.
The
city was laid out after Rome.
A main road, the Mese Odos, linked the palace to the Golden
Gate. On this road was the Forum, a circular plaza with a statue
of Constantine
mounted on a column, surrounded by public buildings. Theodosius I and Arcadius later
built more forums decorated with their own statues.
Following
the Nika riots in the 6th century, Justinian adorned Constantinople
with magnificent edifices, palaces, baths and public buildings. This time also
saw the construction of Agia Sophia (the Holy Wisdom), the church which served
as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate throughout the Byzantine period.
During
the 7th and 8th centuries Constantinople faced
major problems that threw it into disarray: attacks by the Avars (a siege in
674) and Arabs (attacks in 674 and 717-718); natural disasters (a powerful,
destructive earthquake in 740); and epidemics (plague in 747). Limited building
activity resumed in the 8th and 9th century, mainly concentrated on
strengthening the city's fortifications.
With
the recovery of the Byzantine Empire from the
9th to the 11th century, Constantinople became
the most populated city in Christendom; the majority of inhabitants were
Greek-speaking, but many other ethnic groups lived alongside them, such as
Jews, Armenians, Russians, Italians merchants, Arabs and mercenaries from Western Europe and Scandinavia. Many public, private and church-owned buildings were erected at the time, with
an emphasis on establishing charitable institutions such as hospitals, nursing
homes, orphanages and schools. Higher education flourished, thanks to the care
of the state and the emergence of important scholars. This renaissance lasted
until the mid-11th century, when economic problems due to poor management set
in, compounded by the adverse outcome of imperial operations beyond the borders.
The
Crusaders left Constantinople entirely
unscathed when first passing through, but in the Fourth Crusade of 1204 the
Franks conquered and ransacked the city, slaughtering those inhabitants they
did not take prisoner or drive out. In 1261 the city was retaken by Michael
VIII Palaeologus, who rebuilt most of the monuments and the walls but proved
unable to restore the city to its former splendour and glory. Enfeebled as it
was, the empire was incapable of checking the advance of the Ottomans, and in
1453 Constantinople finally fell into their
hands.
The fall signalled the end of the empire. Nevertheless, the Byzantine intellectual
tradition remained significant, as many scholars settled in the Venetian dominions
of Crete and the Peloponnese,
as well as in European countries, conveying Greek learning to the West.
The island:
As the largest island in
the Greek archipelago, with a culture all of its own, Crete
has made its mark on Greek history and often determined its course.
Having developed a fully fledged culture from as early as Neolithic times, Crete heralded the dawn of civilization in the wider
European area. The lasting period of prosperity from 2800 to 1100 BC is
associated with Minoan civilization.
Irrefutable evidence
of its range
and
splendour
lies in the old
and new
palaces
erected at Knossos, Phaistos, Malia and
Zakros; in the development of
important
sites
such as
Agia Triada,
Gortyn,
Zominthos, Myrtos, Fournou
Koryfi, etc.; in the evolution
of a
sophisticated,
rich and vibrant
art; in the commercial
supremacy of
the Minoans on the seas;
and in the spread
of their products,
pottery, artefacts and artistic
trends
throughout the Mediterranean Basin.
The collapse of the
palatial system and the decline of Minoan civilization were followed by
Mycenaean infiltration and the transition to the Iron Age, which in no way
recalled the glories of the past. In historic times Crete
may not have lost its status as trading centre, but it was relegated to the
margins of the Greek world, which was thenceforth associated with the major
centres of Athens,
Sparta and
later Macedonia.
The island’s principal urban
centres at
that time were at Knossos,
Lato,
Praisos, Cydonia
and
Gortyn.
In 69 BC the Romans took
the island by force. They designated Gortys as their administrative seat, which
emerged as a major centre of the time. In the 1st century Crete
received Christianity as preached by the Apostle Paul; the island’s churches
were organized by Paul’s disciple Titus in 63 AD. The spread of Christianity
between the 4th and 8th century led to the construction
of a considerable number of basilicas, all typical of the Early Christian
period, such as those at Sougia, Chersonisos, Panormo, Eleutherna, Sybritos,
Frangokastelo and Gortys. Sources reveal that Crete
then formed part of the Diocese of Moesia (Dioecesis Moesiarum or Illyricum Orientale),
which was directly dependent on the Church of Rome; the
Episcopal
Province
of
Crete
had
about twenty bishoprics, with
Gortys
as
its metropolitan see.
During the iconoclast controversy
under Constantine V, in around 754, the Church of Crete broke away from Rome and was annexed to the throne of Constantinople.
In 823 civil
war
broke out
on
Crete between Thomas the Slav
and
Emperor
Michael II. Meanwhile, a series of
uprisings by Andalusian Arabs
against the Caliph of Cordoba in the West Mediterranean led to
their being banished from the Iberian
Peninsula, thus rendering the island vulnerable to
attack. Denied
access to the north
coast
of Africa, they set their sights on Crete.
Α series of assaults in 826 resulted
in forty Arab battle ships entering Souda
Bay. The island was
pillaged for several days and then taken over; Gortys was razed to the ground,
and the Arabs established a new capital on the site of ancient Heraclea, erecting a substantial fortress
with deep ditches, which they named al-Chandak (later known as Chandax). From there they organised an extensive series of
attacks
against the Aegean islands,
plunging them into destruction
and
desolation.
Emperor Michael II’s
efforts to recover Crete by 829 failed to rid
the island of the Arab presence, as did an initially successful attempt by
Michael III in 843. The baton then passed to Emperor Constantine VII
Porphyrogenitus, in whose reign Nicephorus Phocas became known as a man of
military prowess. Once Porphyrogenitus had been succeeded by Romanos II, in 960
Nicephorus launched a military campaign to liberate Crete.
The following year, following several months of operations, this ended in the
surrender of Chandax. The island returned to Byzantine rule as a theme, with
its church and administration reorganized by Phocas.
For fear of a renewed
Arab
threat the capital was temporarily moved
to the hinterland behind Chandax,
surrounded by a strong wall. In the religious sphere Phocas
formed associations with spiritual fathers such as
Saint
Nikon Metanoeite
(“Repent”)
and Saint
John Xenos,
reorganized
new
episcopal
sees
far
from the
coast and moved others
to new
locations.
In the late 10th century the cathedral of Agios
Titos (Saint Titus), was built at Gortys, on the ruins of an early Christian
three-nave vaulted basilica.
The second period of
Byzantine rule lasted until Constantinople was
conquered by the Crusaders in 1204. After the capital fell, the island was
briefly occupied (until 1217) by Enrico Pescatore, Genoese count of Malta, who
made concerted attempts to strengthen the forts at Chandax, Rethymnon and
Sitia, and erected walls around other important sites. From 1217 onwards Crete established itself as one of the most important
possessions held by the Most Serene Republic of Venice. Under the new Venetian
name Candia, Chandax remained the capital and
administrative centre of the island, which was divided into six sectors administered
by Venetian commanders. Settlement by Venetian colonists boosted the population
and breathed new life into the city, which was radically remodelled: the walls
and harbour were reinforced, and intense building activity began. Sea routes
expanded and trade flourished. The Byzantine church administrative system was
retained, though a Latin bishop was appointed alongside his Greek counterpart
at the head of each episcopal see. The entire 13th century saw
repeated uprisings against Venetian authority. Prominent among these was the
one led by the Skordiles and Melissinos families in the first quarter of the
century, since it had the support of Byzantine troops from John Vatazes’ Empire
of Nicaea.
A few years later, the
recapture of Constantinople by Michael VIII
Palaeologus (1261) sparked off a new wave of unrest on the island. This series
of uprisings ended in 1363-1364, when Venetian feudal lords attempted to secede
from Venice by
declaring Crete the Republic of St. Titus.
After the fall of the
Byzantine capital to the Ottomans in 1453, many people flocked from Constantinople to Crete.
Although this new population influx undoubtedly marked a major change, smooth
coexistence with the local population and the Venetians served the island well,
resulting in the Cretan Renaissance of the 16th and 17th centuries.
Between 1645 and 1669 the
island was the theatre of the Fifth Venetian-Turkish War. The Ottomans landed
on Crete and occupied it in 1645, and three
years latter laid siege to Chandax. Chania was taken in 1645 and Rethymnon in
1646. The monumental siege of Candia began in
May 1648 and lasted for twenty-one years; the city was pounded by daily bombardment and
attacks, but
managed
to
hold out
as it was supplied
from the sea.
The final phase began in 1666, when
numerous reinforcements arrived in support of Fazil Ahmed Pasha Kiopruli
(Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed Paşa). The dire predicament of the besieged forced
Venetian general Francesco Morosini to come to terms with the Ottomans and surrender
the island to them.
Bibliography (3)
1. Ενημερωτικό φυλλάδιο Αρχοντικού Νικολαΐδη στην Πάτμο, 2005
2. Χατζηδάκης Μ., Εικόνες της Πάτμου, Athens, 1995
3. Αρχαιολογικά Μουσεία και Συλλογές στην Ελλάδα, Αθήνα, 2008
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