The city
Corinth remained a thriving city in Late Antiquity, on
account of its strategic location and the commercial activity in its two
seaports, Kechrees and Lechaion. Earthquakes in
365 and
375 dealt the city a serious
blow,
as did Gothic
raids in 395/6.
City space was confined within the newly built Late Roman or Early Byzantine
walls, parts of which still survive in places in the village
of Ancient
Corinth.
Though
previously linked by walls to Acrocorinth, the city now
lost
this connection.
The
significance of
the ancient
forum
seems
to have diminished,
and archaeological
evidence
points
to the domestic
activities
and small
industries of a poor neighbourhood.
The Early Byzantine
period (especially the 5th and 6th century) saw the building of numerous large
Christian basilicas with substantial sculpture decoration in Corinth and its
environs, such those at Kraneion to the east, Kodratos to the north and Skoutela to the northeast, and
those at Lechaion and Kechrees. Cemeteries dating to the 6th and 7th
century have been excavated in areas outside the walls, at the Asclepeion and
the basilicas at Kodratos and Kraneion. The city’s recovery
in this period
seems to
have been stalled by
the great famine of
542,
which affected demographics,
and a
devastating
earthquake
in 525 mentioned by
Procopius.
The building
of the Hexamilion wall was of particular importance in protecting both the city
and the entire Peloponnese. The wall ran the
length of the isthmus, from the shores of the Saronic Gulf
to the Gulf of Corinth, rendering it one of
the largest fortification projects. The wall was originally built by Emperor
Theodosius II (408-451), and rebuilt by Justinian between 548 and 560 in the
wake of devastating earthquakes in the first half of the 6th century.
Over the
following centuries there are signs of activity around
the
basilicas
outside
the walls; from the
late 6th to the 8th century the Roman forum
was used as a burial ground.
Excavation finds from the basilicas at
Kraneion,
Kodratos
and
a small
basilica
at
Acrocorinth
reveal
signs of
habitation
in
the 7th
century.
Similar
activity
has also been detected
at
Diabatiki
near
Lechaion.
In particular, building
remains and other finds from the Kraneion area show that
it was inhabited
in the
mid and
late-Byzantine
periods.
After the
empire was reformed in the late 8th century, we know that Corinth became the
capital of the Theme of the Peloponnese, and the seat of a general. As an
archdiocesal see it must have had a large cathedral. Despite the lack of
excavation data, a large number of sculptures dating from the 9th to the late
12th-early 13th century indicate the existence of churches already known from
sources, such as those dedicated to Agioi Theodoroi and Christ the Saviour, and
the Latin-rite monastery of St. Nicholas. There are some remains of the small
basilica erected on the site of the Roman "bema" where Paul preached;
excavations have also identified churches at the Peirini spring and to the
south of the museum. Added to these are the church of Agios
Ioannis (St. John the Theologian), which survived until 1937,
and the now ruined church of Agia Paraskevi, etc.
As Corinth’s
location favoured the development of trade, the city probably became an
important centre in the Middle Byzantine period. Coins and treasures dating from
this period attest to economic growth in the city. In the late 11th century
the Venetians used Corinth
to gather local products such as silks and olive oil, while in 1165-1171 Vitale
Voltani, a representative of Romano Raimano, monopolized the Corinthian olive
oil market on Venice’s behalf. The city was also famed for its trade in
currants, derived from the renowned local variety of grape. Archaeological
evidence shows that in the late 11th century various buildings encroached on
the open space of the Roman forum.Though building phases are unclear, these included
shops, housing and bath complexes, monasteries and a number of workshops. There
is firm archaeological evidence of workshops for ceramics, glass, gold and
brass. Silk has not been found, despite clear textual references to
installations for processing and dyeing it.
In 1147 Corinth was raided by a
fleet sent by Roger II of Sicily.
The city retained its commanding presence nonetheless; Roger’s geographer
al-Idrisi describes it as large and prosperous, while in the late 12th century
Choniates mentions the two ports of Lechaino and Kechrees, and the bustling
commercial activity below Acrocorinthos castle. Excavation evidence indicates
that the city must have been fortified with towers and a perimeter wall when
the Franks arrived in the 13th century. Trading activity flourished despite the
change in administration. The remains of a contemporary neighbourhood to the west
of the Roman forum indicate that large numbers of clay vessels were imported
from Apulia and Veneto.
Corinth
fell into decline following Catalan raids in 1312, an earthquake in about 1320
and the great plague of 1348. According to a description by Niccolò da Martoni,
in 1395 there were only a few dozen houses within Acrocorinthos, while the
lower city stood in ruins.
Glossary (2)
basilica:
type of large church, divided internally into three or more naves. The central nave was usually covered by a raised roof with windows that illuminated the space.
Late Byzantine Period:
the period from 1204, when Constantinople was conquered by the Franks, until 1453, the fall of the city to the Ottomans.
Information Texts (4)
Goths:
German tribe that
probably came from Scandinavia. Around the 1st
century they migrated south along the Vistula River
to settle in Scythia (modern Ukraine). In
the 3rd century they were divided into the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths.
Several Goth generals seem to have gained considerable influence in the Byzantine
imperial court, to the discontent of the aristocracy and the people. Early in
the 5th century a large-scale massacre of soldiers in Constantinople
aimed to exclude the Goths from army ranks. This eventually cost the empire dearly,
as it was deprived of particularly skilful military personnel.
Procopius:
Prolific Byzantine
historian. Born in Caesarea Palestinae,
he studied rhetoric, sophistry and law. He moved to Constantinople
at an early age, where he practiced as an orator and lawyer. He soon entered
the circle of General Belisarius as secretary and advisor, and followed him on
many campaigns. Procopius survived the great plague of Constantinople
(541-542), which he described in detail. His writings are considered the most
important source for the Justinian period, although admittedly he is not
impartial towards the emperor; from a certain point onwards he seems to be unfavourably
biased against both Justinian and Theodora. From 549 onwards Procopius lived permanently
in Constantinople, though no information has
survived on the final years of his life.
Justinian I:
Byzantine Emperor
(527-565), nephew and successor of Justin I. One of his first acts was to
reform the tax system and recode Theodosius’ laws. He was personally involved
in religious conflicts and convened the 5th Ecumenical Council
(553). Justinian considered himself primarily an orthodox emperor and took
harsh measures against the remaining pagans. Many of his political and fiscal
actions provoked strong reactions on the part of the senate and the factions
and led to the Nika Riots. Justinian instigated numerous building projects,
erecting approximately 30 churches in Constantinople,
including the famous church
of Agia Sophia.
Regarding foreign policy, he successfully confronted the Persians and the
Vandals in the East and focused on the recovery of the West. This he temporarily
achieved, but at such cost that the Empire was left exhausted; the barbarians in
the Balkans plundered the Greek peninsula as far as the Isthmus and barbarian
tribes settled at the borders. His military operations exhausted Byzantium financially and
militarily and had no real effect, as Italy and other areas he conquered
were soon lost again. After his death, the weakened empire had to face new
attacks, culminating in the Arab conquests, which negated the majority of
Justinian’s conquests beyond the borders.
Themata:
Military units and divisions of territory. The themata
were instituted in the 7th century as a countermeasure against enemy
invasions. By the end of the same century most of the empire was subdivided in
this way. Themata were headed by a general who exercised military, political
and judicial power. Many such generals rapidly acquired considerable influence
and centralized power, so by the 8th-9th century the themata
were subdivided into smaller units to curb their influence. In the 11th
century the generals were replaced by civilian rulers, and by the late 12th
century the themata had ceased to exist.
Bibliography (8)
1. Pallas D., Korinth, 1990
2. G. D. R. Sanders, ‘Archaeological Evidence for Early Christianity and the End of Hellenistic Religion in Corinth’ in Urban Religion in Roman Corinth: Interdisciplinary Approaches , D. N. Schowalter and S. J. Friesen, Cambridge, 2005
3. G. D. R. Sanders, ‘Corinth’ in The Economic History of Byzantium from the Seventh Through the Fifteenth Century, Washington D.C., 2002
4. G. D. R. Sanders, Recent Developments in the Chronology of Byzantine Corinth, Princeton, 2003
5. Williams II C. K, Frankish Corinth: an Overview, Princeton, 2003
6. Slane K. W., G. D. R. Sanders, Corinth: Late Roman Horizons, 2005
7. Αθανασούλης Δ. , Μανωλέσσου Ε. , Η μεσαιωνική Κορινθία
8. Αθανασούλης Δ. , Αθανασούλα Μ. , Μανωλέσσου Ε. , gr// Μελέτη Μ., Σύντομη επισκόπηση της αρχαιολογικής έρευνας μεσαιωνικών καταλοίπων Κορίνθου, Athens, 2010
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