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In Late Antiquity
and in Byzantium travelling simply for pleasure was unheard of; journeys always
had a purpose, and depended on the time of year, means of transport, time,
place and travelers’ financial means. During Late Antiquity, when the Byzantine
Empire was very strong in both land and sea, travel destinations were not
limited to the Mediterranean but extended eastwards as far as China, India and
Ceylon, south to Ethiopia and north to the Black Sea. However, after the 7th
century, despite the sporadic mention of some journeys to exotic places, people
rarely traveled except on special missions organized to foreign countries, such
as the mission to Moravia in Central Europe undertaken by brothers Cyril and
Methodius. In late Byzantium Emperor Manuel II Palaeologus and his close
associates got as far as England, while a daring and adventurous trader named
Lascaris Cananus reached Scandinavia, the Baltic countries and Iceland.
Land and sea journeys were often made by traders. Just as frequent were the movements of
sailors, soldiers and diplomats or government officials on special missions. Yet travels for religious purposes were the
most common: as early as the 4th century many pilgrims left the far reaches of
the empire for Rome and the Holy
Land, while Constantinople was the most famed destination, arousing the interest of
Byzantines and foreigners throughout the Middles Ages.
Journeys for educational or cultural purposes
were less frequent in the early centuries. One special category consisted of journeys made by clerics of all ranks,
who went on pilgrimages or in search of a place for spiritual contemplation.
Sea travel was preferred due to greater speed. There were no passenger
ships operating regular services to specific locations. Those wishing to travel
headed for a port and either found a ship to take them where they wanted, if
they could afford to charter it for their own convenience. The fare depended both on the distance covered
and on the captain’s demands, so unwary travellers could be tricked into paying
more.
Ship type and
weather conditions determined how long journeys took; the average distance
covered within a day could vary from 30 to 50 kilometres though there were
faster ships.
On land routes travellers usually went on foot, as they seldom had mules,
donkeys or camels which were mainly used to carry large loads. Carts were even
rarer, and horses and carriages were reserved for army officers and officials
on state business.
Travelling involved many risks. On board ship there was always the
threat of rough seas and shipwreck, and the ever-present danger of travellers
falling victim to piracy and taken prisoner. Those on land were at risk from
thieves and crooks lurking on public roads for their victims, so people usually
travelled in groups to protect each other. A local guide familiar with the area
being crossed was considered essential, especially if it had a bad reputation.
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Information Texts (3)
Cyril and Methodius :
Sons of Leo, drungarius (commander) at the head of the
Theme of Thessaloniki. Cyril and Methodius were scholars and missionaries to
the Slavs. Later canonized as saints of the Orthodox Church, they were chosen
by the Byzantine administration as the most suited to undertake religious
missions in foreign nations. Cyril was distinguished for his knowledge of
languages and Methodius for religious issues. In 863, on the
invitation of Ratislav, ruler of the Slavs, they were selected as delegates to
preach Christianity and to organize the new church. Cyril is regarded as the
creator of the first Slavonic alphabet.
He and Methodius translated the Divine Liturgy, the Bible and liturgical
books, which later became the core of Slavic literature.
Manuel II Palaeologus :
Emperor of Byzantium (1391-1425).
Born in Constantinople to Emperor John V
Palaeologus and Helen Cantacuzena. As a member of the royal family he was
educated from an early age and became involved in public affairs. He ascended the
throne in 1391, after overpowering those of his relatives who challenged the
order of succession. The Ottoman threat intensified in the early years of his
reign; his time on the throne was marked by invasions and diplomatic efforts to
secure help from the West. When these proved unsuccessful he was forced to sign
a humiliating peace treaty with Ottoman Murad II, acknowledging Byzantium’s subordination
to the sultan. He died on 21st
July 1425, at a monastery where he had taken the name Matthew. Manuel
II was a prolific writer.
The city:
Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine
Empire, was built on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, on the
triangular peninsula formed by the Golden Horn,
the Bosporus and the Sea
of Marmara. This was an excellent location that controlled trade
routes linking the Aegean to the Black Sea. Emperor Constantine founded Constantinople
in 330 AD as a city to rival Rome
in splendour, wealth and power. The city grew fast, leading to problems of
space and facilities, so Theodosius I extended it to the west by building new
strong walls that protected Constantinople
until the end of the Byzantine Empire.
The
city was laid out after Rome.
A main road, the Mese Odos, linked the palace to the Golden
Gate. On this road was the Forum, a circular plaza with a statue
of Constantine
mounted on a column, surrounded by public buildings. Theodosius I and Arcadius later
built more forums decorated with their own statues.
Following
the Nika riots in the 6th century, Justinian adorned Constantinople
with magnificent edifices, palaces, baths and public buildings. This time also
saw the construction of Agia Sophia (the Holy Wisdom), the church which served
as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate throughout the Byzantine period.
During
the 7th and 8th centuries Constantinople faced
major problems that threw it into disarray: attacks by the Avars (a siege in
674) and Arabs (attacks in 674 and 717-718); natural disasters (a powerful,
destructive earthquake in 740); and epidemics (plague in 747). Limited building
activity resumed in the 8th and 9th century, mainly concentrated on
strengthening the city's fortifications.
With
the recovery of the Byzantine Empire from the
9th to the 11th century, Constantinople became
the most populated city in Christendom; the majority of inhabitants were
Greek-speaking, but many other ethnic groups lived alongside them, such as
Jews, Armenians, Russians, Italians merchants, Arabs and mercenaries from Western Europe and Scandinavia. Many public, private and church-owned buildings were erected at the time, with
an emphasis on establishing charitable institutions such as hospitals, nursing
homes, orphanages and schools. Higher education flourished, thanks to the care
of the state and the emergence of important scholars. This renaissance lasted
until the mid-11th century, when economic problems due to poor management set
in, compounded by the adverse outcome of imperial operations beyond the borders.
The
Crusaders left Constantinople entirely
unscathed when first passing through, but in the Fourth Crusade of 1204 the
Franks conquered and ransacked the city, slaughtering those inhabitants they
did not take prisoner or drive out. In 1261 the city was retaken by Michael
VIII Palaeologus, who rebuilt most of the monuments and the walls but proved
unable to restore the city to its former splendour and glory. Enfeebled as it
was, the empire was incapable of checking the advance of the Ottomans, and in
1453 Constantinople finally fell into their
hands.
The fall signalled the end of the empire. Nevertheless, the Byzantine intellectual
tradition remained significant, as many scholars settled in the Venetian dominions
of Crete and the Peloponnese,
as well as in European countries, conveying Greek learning to the West.
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