Cities
The Byzantine Empire during the first
centuries of its existence consisted mostly of cities that, having survived
from antiquity, were strongly influenced by the spirit of the ancient world,
which was reflected in their urban structure.
More than 900 cities, the largest of which was Constantinople, Alexandria and
Antioch, were recorded in the East in the sixth century. The leading part that
the Church and central power played in the public life, as well as the form of
houses, streets and squares that were among those affected by the significant
changes occurring in structures and priorities of the city were the results of
the establishment of Christianity as the official religion of the state and the
gradual Christianization of the cities.
Since the Justinianian era, and particularly after the
9th century numerous town-castles, having as their main objective to protect
both the inhabitants and the borders from the enemy attacks, were built throughout
the Byzantine empire. The castles were built in naturally fortified locations,
on hilltops or mountaintops, from where the control of streets and passages of
the mainland was ensured. On the exterior, the castles were protected by
fortification walls with towers, while in their interior paths beginning at the
gates of the fortress and leading to the settlement's areas were created. These
streets were generally narrow, steep and paved, while their width varied
depending on the available space. On both sides of the streets, houses of
usually one or two-storey high and in direct contact with each other were built.
The unregulated structuring and the space constraints
that characterized the byzantine city-castles resulted in the lack of large
squares and designed open spaces. The available open spaces were restricted
around the temples, and the
enclosures of the monasteries that often functioned as areas of fairs, shopping
and socialιzing.
Gradually, these places became important areas of the social life in Byzantium
and were the nuclei around which the neighborhoods were organized. During the
late and especially the post-Byzantine period, parish churches gave their name
to the neighborhoods where they were built. In all Byzantine cities, both
inside and outside of the walls, monasteries were founded, which soon became
centers of intellectual life acquiring considerable economic and social power.
Glossary (0)
Information Texts (2)
The city:
Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine
Empire, was built on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, on the
triangular peninsula formed by the Golden Horn,
the Bosporus and the Sea
of Marmara. This was an excellent location that controlled trade
routes linking the Aegean to the Black Sea. Emperor Constantine founded Constantinople
in 330 AD as a city to rival Rome
in splendour, wealth and power. The city grew fast, leading to problems of
space and facilities, so Theodosius I extended it to the west by building new
strong walls that protected Constantinople
until the end of the Byzantine Empire.
The
city was laid out after Rome.
A main road, the Mese Odos, linked the palace to the Golden
Gate. On this road was the Forum, a circular plaza with a statue
of Constantine
mounted on a column, surrounded by public buildings. Theodosius I and Arcadius later
built more forums decorated with their own statues.
Following
the Nika riots in the 6th century, Justinian adorned Constantinople
with magnificent edifices, palaces, baths and public buildings. This time also
saw the construction of Agia Sophia (the Holy Wisdom), the church which served
as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate throughout the Byzantine period.
During
the 7th and 8th centuries Constantinople faced
major problems that threw it into disarray: attacks by the Avars (a siege in
674) and Arabs (attacks in 674 and 717-718); natural disasters (a powerful,
destructive earthquake in 740); and epidemics (plague in 747). Limited building
activity resumed in the 8th and 9th century, mainly concentrated on
strengthening the city's fortifications.
With
the recovery of the Byzantine Empire from the
9th to the 11th century, Constantinople became
the most populated city in Christendom; the majority of inhabitants were
Greek-speaking, but many other ethnic groups lived alongside them, such as
Jews, Armenians, Russians, Italians merchants, Arabs and mercenaries from Western Europe and Scandinavia. Many public, private and church-owned buildings were erected at the time, with
an emphasis on establishing charitable institutions such as hospitals, nursing
homes, orphanages and schools. Higher education flourished, thanks to the care
of the state and the emergence of important scholars. This renaissance lasted
until the mid-11th century, when economic problems due to poor management set
in, compounded by the adverse outcome of imperial operations beyond the borders.
The
Crusaders left Constantinople entirely
unscathed when first passing through, but in the Fourth Crusade of 1204 the
Franks conquered and ransacked the city, slaughtering those inhabitants they
did not take prisoner or drive out. In 1261 the city was retaken by Michael
VIII Palaeologus, who rebuilt most of the monuments and the walls but proved
unable to restore the city to its former splendour and glory. Enfeebled as it
was, the empire was incapable of checking the advance of the Ottomans, and in
1453 Constantinople finally fell into their
hands.
The fall signalled the end of the empire. Nevertheless, the Byzantine intellectual
tradition remained significant, as many scholars settled in the Venetian dominions
of Crete and the Peloponnese,
as well as in European countries, conveying Greek learning to the West.
Justinian I:
Byzantine Emperor
(527-565), nephew and successor of Justin I. One of his first acts was to
reform the tax system and recode Theodosius’ laws. He was personally involved
in religious conflicts and convened the 5th Ecumenical Council
(553). Justinian considered himself primarily an orthodox emperor and took
harsh measures against the remaining pagans. Many of his political and fiscal
actions provoked strong reactions on the part of the senate and the factions
and led to the Nika Riots. Justinian instigated numerous building projects,
erecting approximately 30 churches in Constantinople,
including the famous church
of Agia Sophia.
Regarding foreign policy, he successfully confronted the Persians and the
Vandals in the East and focused on the recovery of the West. This he temporarily
achieved, but at such cost that the Empire was left exhausted; the barbarians in
the Balkans plundered the Greek peninsula as far as the Isthmus and barbarian
tribes settled at the borders. His military operations exhausted Byzantium financially and
militarily and had no real effect, as Italy and other areas he conquered
were soon lost again. After his death, the weakened empire had to face new
attacks, culminating in the Arab conquests, which negated the majority of
Justinian’s conquests beyond the borders.
Bibliography (1)
1. Ώρες Βυζαντίου: Η καθημερινή ζωή στο Βυζάντιο, Athens, 2002
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