Science and Technology
The largest contribution of
Byzantium to the science is considered the continuation and preservation of
knowledge of the ancient world through the
reproduction of texts in the byzantine calligraphic workshops. However,
the Byzantines were not limited to the copying of ancient manuscripts but they
also wrote new ones where their empirical discoveries and technological
achievements were reported.
The theological and hagiological secretariat of
Byzantium has incorporated many findings of the ancient science. For example,
Philo of Alexandria and Basil the Great analyzed the sacred text of Genesis in
such a way as to match the generally accepted astronomical model of the
Greco-Roman tradition of spherical geocentric world. In Constantinople the works of ancient and modern
scholars as Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius of Perge in Pamphylia, Claudius
Ptolemy, Diophantus, Theon Alexanricus (the father of Hypatia) and others, were
republished at that time. Arab
sources report the presence of Byzantine scholars in Baghdad and Damascus,
which from the beginning of the 9th century proved to be centers of
mathematics, especially algebra, and astronomy. In general, Byzantium during
that period was in constant contact with the Arab caliphate and their expertise,
both in pacific and martial works, was largely shared, as can be assumed by the
example of the greek fire, which was largely shared.
The most important evidence about the impact of the
arab science to byzantine scholars, especially where solving of practical
mathematical problems and planning of astronomical tables is concerned, derives
from this period. These astronomical tables contained predictions of the
positions of the celestial bodies, the conjugations and the eclipses that
proved to be very useful in calculating Easter time and making horoscopes.
Already in Late Antiquity, the science of medicine was
cultivated by great doctors and theoreticians of therapeutics and pharmacology in
the major cities of the empire. The works of the great Greek physicians,
Hippocrates and Galen formed the foundation of Byzantine medicine, although
doctors didn't strictly followed the instructions of the ancient writings but
enriched their knowledge through observation and experience. In the middle and late Byzantium,
the development of medicine was based on writings such as the Anatomy
of Gender by the monk Meletius focusing on human anatomy and physiology, the
Medical Compendium of doctor Leo focusing on the theory of medicine,
remedies and surgery, the Compendium of treating diseases by Theophanes
Chrysobalantes and many more.
The sciences of architecture and
engineering are those where both the differentiation of Byzantium from the
older tradition and its contribution to the advancement of science are more evident.
During the Late Antiquity is known that in
Istanbul and other cities of the empire special
schools
functioned, attended
by
those
who
wanted to become architects. There, the works of Euclid, Vitruvius and Pappus
of Alexandria were studied and the subjects of arithmetic, geometry, practical
mathematics and their applications were taught.
Music, which was influenced by both ancient greek and roman music
and by the chanting of the Jews, was
a field that experienced particular development during the byzantine period. It was originally coded with a limited expressive
system, which later evolved in Alexandria, Antioch and Ephesus. The first symbols indicating melodic variations
appeared
in the 9th century. Our knowledge
of the music of earlier periods derives
mainly from the typica of monasteries,
as well as texts of the Church Fathers. Accordingly, the first melodies were probably
syllabic (one note corresponds to one syllable). At the end of the 9th century
Byzantine music becomes orchestrated
and acquires a new style (one syllable of text spans multiple notes), and
ceases to be monaural. Musical
manuscripts containing collections of church hymns and melodies together with
the poems written in honor of the emperor preserve the musical production of
Byzantium. Treatises on the theory and notation of music, descriptions of
religious ceremonies and secular celebrations, where hymns and psalms were
chanted and instrumental music was played, also survived from the period in
question.
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Basil the Great:
also known as Saint Basil. He was one of the Church Fathers,
bishop
of Caesarea, a leading theologian
of the 4th
century
and one of the
Three Hierarch,
patrons
of education.
The city:
Constantinople, the capital city of the Byzantine
Empire, was built on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium, on the
triangular peninsula formed by the Golden Horn,
the Bosporus and the Sea
of Marmara. This was an excellent location that controlled trade
routes linking the Aegean to the Black Sea. Emperor Constantine founded Constantinople
in 330 AD as a city to rival Rome
in splendour, wealth and power. The city grew fast, leading to problems of
space and facilities, so Theodosius I extended it to the west by building new
strong walls that protected Constantinople
until the end of the Byzantine Empire.
The
city was laid out after Rome.
A main road, the Mese Odos, linked the palace to the Golden
Gate. On this road was the Forum, a circular plaza with a statue
of Constantine
mounted on a column, surrounded by public buildings. Theodosius I and Arcadius later
built more forums decorated with their own statues.
Following
the Nika riots in the 6th century, Justinian adorned Constantinople
with magnificent edifices, palaces, baths and public buildings. This time also
saw the construction of Agia Sophia (the Holy Wisdom), the church which served
as the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate throughout the Byzantine period.
During
the 7th and 8th centuries Constantinople faced
major problems that threw it into disarray: attacks by the Avars (a siege in
674) and Arabs (attacks in 674 and 717-718); natural disasters (a powerful,
destructive earthquake in 740); and epidemics (plague in 747). Limited building
activity resumed in the 8th and 9th century, mainly concentrated on
strengthening the city's fortifications.
With
the recovery of the Byzantine Empire from the
9th to the 11th century, Constantinople became
the most populated city in Christendom; the majority of inhabitants were
Greek-speaking, but many other ethnic groups lived alongside them, such as
Jews, Armenians, Russians, Italians merchants, Arabs and mercenaries from Western Europe and Scandinavia. Many public, private and church-owned buildings were erected at the time, with
an emphasis on establishing charitable institutions such as hospitals, nursing
homes, orphanages and schools. Higher education flourished, thanks to the care
of the state and the emergence of important scholars. This renaissance lasted
until the mid-11th century, when economic problems due to poor management set
in, compounded by the adverse outcome of imperial operations beyond the borders.
The
Crusaders left Constantinople entirely
unscathed when first passing through, but in the Fourth Crusade of 1204 the
Franks conquered and ransacked the city, slaughtering those inhabitants they
did not take prisoner or drive out. In 1261 the city was retaken by Michael
VIII Palaeologus, who rebuilt most of the monuments and the walls but proved
unable to restore the city to its former splendour and glory. Enfeebled as it
was, the empire was incapable of checking the advance of the Ottomans, and in
1453 Constantinople finally fell into their
hands.
The fall signalled the end of the empire. Nevertheless, the Byzantine intellectual
tradition remained significant, as many scholars settled in the Venetian dominions
of Crete and the Peloponnese,
as well as in European countries, conveying Greek learning to the West.
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